The Industrial Revolution Refer to side notes below Essay

The Industrial Revolution Refer to side notes below - Essay Example The so-called Industrial Revolution was indeed one of the most transformative events in human history. Starting in a small area of England and then spreading through the country, on to the rest of Europe and hence to much of the world, the growth in industrial methods of production would have profound influence upon lives throughout the world. While there is virtually unanimous agreement on the influence of the changes that occurred, there is more debate upon their causes and how they should be characterized. Those that affirm the "revolution" aspect of this industrial change concentrate upon the rapidity of development and the influence of individual men such as Thomas Watt and his steam engine. Historians who criticize such characterizations claim that the industrial change occurred in a more complex manner. The exact causes and even dates of the Industrial Revolution have been constantly debated by historians, and this effects whether they see it as a "revolution" or not. For example, Lewis Mumford (1971) suggests that its origins are in fact in the Middle Ages with the printing press as an archetype for modern industrialization. The monasteries that had kept learning alive after the Romans also insisted upon a regularized timetable throughout the day, again, according to Mumford, a precursor of the Industrial Revolution's factories. ... They see it as stemming from post Civil War changes in Britain in which national borders were meaningful and so the spread of disease through population movements was limited (Cipolla, 1994). This in turn led to a lowering of infant mortality and an increase in population. A larger population was an essential precursor to industrialization as it required both a big workforce and an adequate market size for its goods. Cipolla also suggests that the agricultural revolution in Britain, with the enclosure of land and more efficient food production techniques, led to labor being forced into cities. This growth in cities provided the workforce and market in which the industrial revolution could occur. However, the actual period of industrial change within England (which spread to the rest of the world within decades) did occur in a relatively short period between 1780-1830. While the factors suggested by the authors already discussed were important catalysts the actual period of change was very rapid and created conditions in which technology developed on an almost yearly basis. One of the most important aspects of this change was the sheer number of inventions and industrial developments that occurred in a very short period of time and within a concentrated geographical area. England is a very small country by most standards, being 200 miles at its broadest and only about 400 miles long. When an invention appeared in one place it was easy for it to be transported to another and to influence developments there. The Industrial Revolution can be characterized as a period of intense cross-fertilization of ideas, industrial developments and changes. Thomas Watt's steam engine led to mechanized machines.

Social Anomie Essay Example for Free

Social Anomie Essay Introduction This essay is going to discuss the anomie theory by trying to define it. It will then look at Durkheim’s and Merton’s view of anomie and the difference between the two. It will look at culturally defined goals and the generally acceptable modes of achieving these goals and the creation of Merton’s typology of adaption’s as to how people respond to the disjunction of goals and means to achieve such goals. This paper will then examine social anomie in South Africa; racial differences in social anomie and whether the socio economic inequalities between races help to explain these differences; the possible relations between race, social inequality and anomie. Anomie is the social instability caused by the erosion of standards and values. It is alienation and purposelessness experienced by a person or a class of persons as a result of lack of standards, values or ideals, (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/anomie-2013-09-16). The concept thus refers to the absence of clear social norms and values and to a lack of sense of social regulation. Merton focused on features of relative deprivation that cause anomie and Durkheim was interested in the link between rapid social change and social anomie, (Huschka Mau, 2006). Durkheim’s and Merton’s view of anomie. The difference between the two. Durkheim’s conceptualization of anomie is based on a general assumption about the psychological or biological nature of individual human beings. He wrote that that the human â€Å"capacity or feeling is in itself an insatiable and bottomless abyss† ( 1951: 247). From his point of view, individual happiness and wellbeing depend on the ability of society to impose external limits on the potentially limitless passions and appetites that characterise human nature in general. Human desires are left unchecked and unbounded- the individual â€Å"aspires to everything and is satisfied with nothing† (19951:21). Thus the concept of anomie is used by Durkheim to explain a variety of facts. Merton was primarily concerned with the disjunction between culturally devised goals and accepted means of achieving these ends, according to Merton’s theory it was the inability of groups to atta in socially valued goals that caused anomie (Huschka Mau, 469, 2006). Therefore Merton’s conception of anomie â€Å"refers to the lack of means to accomplish determined goals† (Tsahuridu, 2009). Merton bases his theory on sociological assumptions about human nature. Merton replaces Durkheim’s conception of insatiable passions and appetites with the assumption that human needs and desires are primarily the product of a social process that is cultural socialization (Merton, 672, 1957). Culturally defined goals and the generally acceptable modes of achieving these goals and how do people respond to the disjunction of goals and means to achieve such goals. Durkheim wrote that No living being can be happy or even exist unless his needs are sufficiently proportioned to his means. In other words, if his needs require more than can be granted, or even merely something of a different sort, they will be under continual friction and can only function painfully. Movements incapable of production without pain tend not be reproduced. Unsatisfied tendencies atrophy, and as the impulse to live is merely the result of all the rest, it is bound to weaken as others relax. (246:1951) Merton on the other hand felt that in order for a society to be socially integrative there must be a balance between aspirations and means to fulfil such aspirations and that a balance occurs as long as the individual feels that he or she is achieving the culturally desired goal by conforming to the institutionally accepted mode of doing so (Huschka Mau, 469, 2006). Merton believed that every social group invariably couples its scale of desired ends with moral or institutional regulation of permissible and required procedures for attaining these ends but also however felt that moral imperatives and regulatory norms do not necessarily coincide with technical or efficiency norms (Merton; 673, 1957). Merton firstly perceives a strain toward anomie in the relative lack of cultural emphasis on institutional norms, the established rules of the game as to say that regulate the legitimate means for obtaining success. Second, structural blockages that limit access to legitimate means for many members of society also contribute to anomic tendencies. Under such conditions, behaviour tends to be governed solely by considerations of expediency or effectiveness in obtaining the goal rather than by concern with whether or not the behaviour conforms to institutional norms (Merton; 675, 1957). Therefore people become defiant because they are blocked in their pursuit for success. Merton’s typology Merton presents an analytical typology, shown in the following table, of individual adaption’s to the discrepancy between culture and social structures. Mertons typology of individual adaptations to environmental pressures | Type of Adaptation | Cultural Goal | Institutionalized Means | I. Conformity | + | + | II. Innovation | + | –| III. Ritualism| –| + | IV. Retreatism | –| –| V. Rebellion | + | + | Note: + signifies acceptance, – signifies rejection, and + signifies rejection of prevailing goal or means and substitution of new goal or means. (Merton; 676; 1957).| These adaptations describe the kinds of social roles people adopt in response to cultural and structural pressures. Conformity, for instance, is a nondeviant adaptation where people continue to engage in legitimate occupational or educational roles despite environmental pressures toward deviant behavior. That is, the conformist accepts and strives for the cultural goal of material success (+) by following institutionalized means (+). Innovation, on the other hand, involves acceptance of the cultural goal (+) but rejection of legitimate, institutionalized means (-). Instead, the innovator moves into criminal or delinquent roles that employ illegitimate means to obtain economic success. Ritualism represents quite a different sort of departure from cultural standards than does innovation. The ritualist is an over conformist. Here, the pursuit of the dominant cultural goal of economic success is rejected or abandoned (-) and compulsive conformity to institutional norms (+) becomes an end in itself. Retreatism involves complete escape from the pressures and demands of organized society. Merton applies this adaptation to the deviant role â€Å"activities of psychotics, autists, pariahs, outcasts, vagrants, vagabonds, tramps, chronic drunkards, and drug addicts†. Rebellion, is indicated by different notation than the other adaptations. The two  ± signs show that the rebel not only rejects the goals and means of the established society but actively attempts to substitute new goals and means in their place. This adaptation refers, then, to the role behavior of political deviants, who attempt to modify greatly the existing structure of society. http://deviance.socprobs.net/Unit_3/Theory/Anomie.htm 2013-09-16 Social anomie in South Africa; racial differences in social anomie and whether the socio economic inequalities between races help to explain these differences; the possible relations between race, social inequality and anomie. Huschka and Mau’s point of departure is the same as I believe is that South Africa went through a lot during the apartheid and post apartheid regime that irrevocably resulted in anomie. Blacks (Indians, coloureds and Africans) had unequal opportunities as compared to the white man. Before 1994 South Africans had a sense of powerlessness, social conditions at the time deprived people of their freedom and limited their opportunities in the economy and in the workplace. Certain people of certain races could not trade in certain areas; certain people had to have work passes to be working in a certain area. After 1994,

Education is the key to unlock the golden door of freedom

Education is the key to unlock the golden door of freedom George Washington Carver said that education is the key to unlock the golden door of freedom (n.d. in BrainyQuote, 2010) and nowhere is this more true than for those who experience learning difficulties. In every educational environment it is important that the students feel valued; no matter what their learning difficulties they need to feel included as a part of the school community where any barriers to learning are removed in order to optimise à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦learning and participation (Booth, Ainscow, Black-Hawkins, Vaughan and Shaw, 2000, P. 13) and that they are bringing something valuable into the classroom where their efforts and achievement will be recognised (Ofsted, 2000, P. 4). The key to being able to support all students in their learning is first class assessment which identifies individual pupils strengths and weaknesses so that optimum provision can be made for them (Cross, 2004, P. 117) which is particularly important in protecting à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦specialist provisio n for those who need it (Croll and Moses, 2000, P. 1). Sometimes teachers instruct or tell, serving as transmitters of information that students have to acquireà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ at other times teachers show and demonstrate, acting as mentors and coaches rather than as instructorsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Hargreaves, 2005, P. 5) the aim of this essay is to analyse behaviourist and cognitive approaches to learning for those who have learning difficulties identifying the strengths and weaknesses in each method when applied to the teaching. Historically children have been presented with a didactic model of learning: they were told when to come into school, what they were going to learn and were instructed about how they were going to learn it irrespective or their personal talents; students were all made to write with their right hand even if it did not come naturally to them much to their frustration my great grandmother for example. The education system became a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ process of learning to instructionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ by which children are expected to learn by intent participation in meaningful, useful occupations, with a factory model of education by assembly line instruction (Bruce, 2004, P. Xi). This followed very much the Behaviourist Model which argues that learning is initiated through our interaction with external stimuli which alters the way in which we tackle things (Glassman, 1995): the behaviourist school of thought grew from the pioneering work of Ivan Pavlov and his work with dogs; at the sound of a bell he was able to initiate salivation in the animals in anticipation of receiving food which continued long after the food was not delivered as expected this became known as Classical Conditioning. James Watson (who first used the term behaviourism) continued this work and attested that all human behaviour was the result of responding to stimuli in a conditioned manner he even went as far as to suggest that anyone, no matter what their social status or ability, could be schooled to fulfil any task or profession provided that they were healthy and applied themselves in their learning (Watson, 1924, P. 82) and that an adult carefully controlled the conditions for the stimuli and the responses (Keenan, 2002, P. 24). Experiments that were carried out with children to test this theory, notably by Watson and Rayner, illustrated that both fear and pleasure could be associated with particular objects or noises; this led them to theorise that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ rewards or reinforcement s could arise from the satisfaction of inner needs and could provide a motivation for learning (Tilstone, Layton, Anderson, Gerrish, Morgan and Williams, 2004, P. 45). Skinner further developed these ideas into what he called Operant Conditioning; he put forward the idea that all actions that were reinforced, either positively through reward or negatively through punishment, would be duplicated he actively encouraged teachers and educators in general to cement a childs success through the use of positive praise and reinforcement. Positive reinforcement involves rewarding correct behaviour or responses such as reading a sentence without error leading to a star being given, progressing to two lines followed by a paragraph and so on to gain the reward and encourage learning. He felt that children were led and could be shaped in their learning and parents and teachers needed to reinforce their learning whenever and wherever it occurred in other words, when a parent or carer shows enthusiasm for something a child tries to say, this should encourage the child to repeat the utterance (David, Goouch, Powell and Abbott 2003, P. 49). Skinner also believed that the acquisition of knowledge needed to be tackled in stages which built on the existing learning of the individual involved proposing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a technology of teaching whereby instruction is individualised, complex verbal behaviours gradually shaped, reinforcement for appropriate responses is consistent and immediate, and learned behaviours are maintained by intermittent reinforcement schedules. (Ormrod, 2004, Ps. 79-80). Having said that it is individualised it is mechanistic in nature following a set pattern of repetition, correction and praise following successful modification to embed the skills into the learner (Capel, 1997, P. 136); this sort of learning treats the child like a type of human sponge (Kirk, Macdonald and OSullivan, 2006, P. 295) they are often referred to as command or practice styles and are often seen in subjects such as Physical Education (Byra, 2006, in Kirk et al, 2006, P. 450). These theorists placed great emphasis on the linear nature of devel opment what we call development in this view, is really just a long series of individual learning experiences (Bee, 1989, P. 14) considering learning to be the same for all no matter what their age or stage in life (Tilstone, Layton, Anderson, Gerrish, Morgan and Williams, 2004, P. 50) reinforcing the need for educators to look at how students are acquiring their learning necessitating accurate and thorough record keeping in order to be able to properly assess and evaluate their work. This is crucial in order to fully cater for individuals who are experiencing difficulties in their learning. The word cognitive comes from the Latin cognoscere which means to know; all of the processes which are undertaken in thinking and knowing about anything are what is known as cognitive actions. Cognitive development is the study of how these processes develop in children and young people, and how they become more efficient and effective in their understanding of the world and in their mental processes (Oakley, 2004, P. 2). Every individual thinks and reasons in a different way, with a childs processes being different from that of an adult which is why cognitive approaches to education are both fascinating and complex in their make up. Jean Piaget was one of the first to look at how children learn as individuals in their own right and that their way of thinking and therefore learning was different to that of an adult. He argued that all children go through a series of stages in their development which are linear in nature which means that they take place at approximately the same time (Long, 2000, P. 32): they are sensori motor (birth to about eighteen months), the pre operational (eighteen months to about six years), the concrete operational (six to approximately eleven years) and the formal operational (eleven years onwards). Piaget contests that the way that individuals learn in their lives is different at each of these stages and that as a result à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the way children perceive the world, the way they process and respond to information, and the way they develop ideas and concepts (Moore, 2000, P. 9) will be different too. He believed that maturity affected the way that children thought and learned s aying that human beings are, from early childhood, active, independent meaning makers who construct knowledge rather than receive it (Moore, 2000, P. 7). He perceived children as being capable of constructing their own understanding of their experiences and the world around them as a result of their inbuilt curiosity and need for knowledge and understanding. Piaget put forward the idea that there are two distinct phases to the learning process; the first entails the child demonstrating their understanding of a particular experience or idea that they come across in the world by the way in which they integrate or assimilate this new data into it, for example a child using a large box as a house when they are playing; the other is known as accommodation which describes the learners ability to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ make sense of the new event occurring in the environment (Leonard, 2002, P. 1). Piaget believed that these two phases needed to be perfectly balanced if effective learning was goi ng to be able to take place as it is only by the simultaneous action of assimilation and accommodation[that] events are perceived as meaningful and at the same time generate changes in the interpretive procedures (Barnes, 1976, P. 22). Due to every single experience that people have in life their perceptions of and interaction with the world around them changes and Piaget regards this as part of the process of learning and cognitive development to understand is to discover, or reconstruct by rediscovery, and such conditions must be complied with if in the future individuals are to be formed who are capable of production and creativity and not simply repetition (1973). The cognitive structures à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ adjust in response to challenges when incoming information cannot be accommodated within existing schemes, and modes of thinking develop with biological growth (Tilstone et al, 2004, P. 20). A similar route was followed by the work of Bruner who studied the processes behind learning and problem solving. Both stress the importance of engagement in problem solving activities which promote links with finding solutions (Wood, 1998) as well as there being stages through which learners acquire and develop their knowledge: Bruner describes them as enactive understanding is promoted in the learner through interaction with the world, iconic when images are more frequently used in order to remember knowledge and information and symbolic the use of complex systems of symbols, for example language, to convey understanding and abstract thought; these correspond to Piagets sensori-motor [enactive], pre-operational [iconic] and concrete and formal operational [symbolic] (Smith, 1999, P. 20). Bruner explains that the first stage is characterised by action on the part of the learner in that the recognition of objects à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ seems to depend not so much on the objects themselve s but on the actions evoked by them (Bruner, 1966, P. 12). As the learner matures there is less need to interact physically with objects to understand them as they develop the capacity to see something in their mind (the iconic stage). The learner moves to the symbolic stage through interaction with the world and those around them in order to develop language and communication within the context of the culture to which they are exposed as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ learning, remembering, talking, imagining; all of them are made possible by participating in a culture (Bruner, 1996, P. xi). As a result he seems to equate learning issues or difficulties with an absence of culturally stimulating environments as opposed to deficiencies in any child (Tilstone, 2000 in Tilstone et al, 2004, P. 25) giving particular attention to three distinct areas or amplifiers motoric, sensory and reflective. Motoric covers physical extensions of human capabilities like knives and forks for eating, spears for hunt ing, tools for farming and cars to transport ourselves around more quickly and efficiently. Sensory involves the enhancement of the way that the world and people in it are perceived for example simple things like spectacles or magnifying glasses. Reflective encompasses the means through which communication skills are learnt, developed and shared with those around us; parents and carers initiate this process with both verbal and non verbal cues enabling them to scaffold communication through holding their attention while building on their responses (Tilstone, 2004, P. 26). Often this will mean that adults will challenge children to extend their abilities and skills through this which Bruner believes is the right thing to do as a teacher, you do not wait for readiness to happen; you foster or scaffold it by deepening the childs powers at the stage where you find him or her now (1996, P. 120). He believed that comprehensive development is possible through this sort of social/cultural interaction. Vygotsky furthered the idea that social interaction was the catalyst for the development of a child the entire history of a childs psychological development shows us that, from the very first days of development, its adaptation to the environment is achieved through social means, through the people surrounding it (Vygotsky and Luria, 1993, P. 116). Kozulin, Gindis, Ageyev and Millar (2003) inform us that at the heart of Vygotskys theory lies the understanding of human cognition and learning as social and cultural rather than individual phenomena (P. 1). He laid great stress on the socio cultural environments which shape the development of children (Kozulin et al, 2003, P. 2), believing that absolutely everything in the behaviour of the child is merged and rooted in social relations (Vygotski, 1932 in Ivic, 1989, P. 429) and their interactions with their peers, teachers, adults and the community as a whole. He in fact stressed that interaction, teaching and learning were integral to each other and that they could have no rigidly defined techniques ascribed to them (Popkevitz, 1998, P. 538). These ideas about cognitive development are referred to as social cognitive due to their being a mixture of social and cognitive theory; they centre round childrens dealings with the environment and those in it utilising the different communication skills that they have learnt. Vygotsky believes that children learn from watching and copying or modelling the different behaviours of those around them using a number of different cultural tools, for example a small child pointing a finger is seen initially as an inconsequential grasping action which changes into a significant one as people react to it (Vygotsky, 1978, P. 56). He emphasised two points in terms of learning, mediation and the expansion of psychological tools. Mediation can be seen as a learner using aids which are both human and symbolic to be able to understand the information that has to be learnt; at the start of the process something which needs to be learnt is modelled and observed by the learner who internalises it, m aking it part of their psyche having had time to reflect on it; this type of mediation can take countless different forms from simple guidance and encouragement to complex advice and scaffolding in order to achieve the understanding of a concept but rather than try to define mediation it is more important to understand that it à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦provides a perspective on how to look at interpersonal engagements and arrangements (Rogoff, 1995, P. 146-147). Psychological tools are à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ those symbolic systems specific for a given culture that when internalised by individual learners become their inner cognitive tools (Kozulin et al, 2003, P. 3) which aid them in à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦mastering mental processes (Daniels, 2001, P. 15) and gives them the ability to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦control the conditions of their future remembering (Bakhurst, 1996, P. 202). Vygotsky felt that the higher cognitive processes could only be accessed and developed by learners through copying or imitating adults or older more experienced people due to what he referred to as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD); he defined this as a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ latent learning gap between what a child can do on his or her own and what can be done with the help of a more skilful other (Richardson, 1998, P. 163).  It is through following the lead of someone else that individuals are able to develop the skills and the cognitive ability to be able to accomplish tasks alone. Siegler believed that the linear way of regarding cognitive development did not paint a full enough picture of the facts that one could observe about learning, such as the anomaly of a variety of different skill levels within the same age group of children. He developed an overlapping waves theory in trying to better understand how children develop where the focus was on à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the number of strategies that a child might use at any age rather than à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ which specific strategy a child might use most during which stage (Calais, 2008, P. 3). Siegler made three assumptions on which he based his idea: children use a number of methods to address a problem, not just one; methods of thinking and strategies that are used remain with people for indefinite periods of time; children use the experiences that they have to enable them to build towards and move on to more complex strategic thinking. He states that variability is undeniable when one observes how an individual or g roup tackle a problem and that inconsistencies in approach can be seen in individuals who use different strategies to address the same issue on different days. Siegler highlights five stages in learning; acquisition of appealing strategies, mapping strategies onto new problems, strengthening strategies for consistent usage, refining choices and executing appealing strategies (Calais, 2008, P. 4). These stages are all evident in the development of childrens cognitive abilities although they might actually be going through a number of them at the same time. Similar to Piaget and Vygotsky, Siegler discovered that the ability of the learner to choose an appropriate strategy in order to address an issue got better the more mature and skilled they became thus possibly accounting for why individuals within a group might tackle a problem differently in spite of being from the same culture. The teaching techniques which are associated with these schools of thought are almost diametrically opposed to each other. The behaviourist model is one which is teacher focused and revolves around the pupils following instructions that they are given to achieve a specified end. It is a mechanical and unimaginative way of working but is one which is essential if children are to learn the basics of any skill. Unfortunately there is no substitute in a great many areas of the curriculum for instruction based teaching in order to ingrain the skills into students prior to moving on to more advanced skills. Examples of this can be readily seen in the mathematics classrooms where I myself sat through what seemed like endless practice of times tables either through chanting as a class or via targeted questioning of individuals to ensure that they had been learnt properly; the basic rules of algebra need to be learnt before attempting to work out equations or problems; Physical Education less ons are full of the command or practice style of lessons where instructions and demonstration of skills are given followed by practice of skills in isolation, feedback from the practitioner and peers followed by time for improvement and a short game to contextualise the newly learnt skill. The advantage of this type of learning environment is that it is very focused on specific learning goals, the lessons targeting those exclusively in bite size pieces which is ideal for those with learning issues; the disadvantage is that it does not allow for freedom of expression or for the individual strengths of students to be developed. Cognitive schools of thought would encourage teachers to contextualise any skills that students are learning at all times or at the very least whenever it is possible to do so. This would involve starting work on a subject by assessing what the student already knows and constructing a programme of work from that point. This would enable the students with learning difficulties to feel confident in their ability to make progress in that they are beginning with familiar territory making the prospect of what is to come less intimidating and potentially overwhelming. Classrooms following this sort of approach are much more creative in that they allow, as far as possible, for the pupils to direct the learning towards set goals allowing for them to be as imaginative as possible in the process. This child centred approach requires a high degree of organisation in and management of the classroom and necessitates a measured lay out of the classroom for its various functions. In the primary cla ssroom there would need to be specific areas for each different activity in order to maximise the learning potential of the environment for example a computer area, a construction area, a role play area, a carpet area and a reading or quiet area. The teachers work area could be placed in the middle of the classroom for ease of access for all with clear gangways to aid uninhibited movement around the room. The displays should be vibrant, colourful and current indicating to the class that their work is valuable and worthy of being displayed a particularly important point for those with learning difficulties who invariably have low self esteem. Topic based work allows cross curricular links to be forged which is a strength of this method of learning: for example a topic on the Great Fire of London could be tackled encompassing a number of different areas of the curriculum; history would clearly be covered as the foundation of the study alongside a study of how the buildings of the ti me were constructed, why they would have burnt so quickly and how they could have been constructed to make them safer; English and Literacy could be covered through the construction of fire safety posters and poems and the community could be involved through a visit from the local fire service personnel. The children would be encouraged to work both on their own and as members of a group for different parts of the study that they are undertaking using the adults as a resource from which to glean information or to aid them in their planning of how to approach part or parts of their work. The disadvantage of this method of approaching teaching is the huge amount of preparation which needs to be completed before the session to accommodate the creative talents within the group of children but the advantage is that pupils are motivated to complete work to a high standard which expresses their knowledge and understanding of the topic to its fullest extent irrespective of their relative ta lents or abilities. There is no easy or definitive way to teach the skill of reading to any child let alone those who experience learning difficulties. The current trends appear to be a blend of the behaviourist and the cognitive approaches which bring in the best of both worlds. Before implementing any programme it is important to understand the level at which children are operating when they enter the classroom. Some primary children will already have acquired the basics of letter recognition and even some reading skills. However it is important to establish where they are and how to go about reinforcing the basic skills which will allow them to access books and reading materials in the future. It is crucial to understand that the teaching of reading is designed to cover two areas the mechanical aspects of decoding words and the comprehension of them. Decoding is the means through which people are able to interpret written words on a page and make them into meaningful sounds; this involves providing them with the skills to be able to sound out letters and syllables in order to construct the words that appear on the page. It gives people the ability to read almost anything even if it is slowly through the decoding process initially this involves using words with which the learner is familiar followed by the introduction of increasingly more complex ones. The most popular method at present is that of phonics the use of letter/sound associations to recognise words. There are five basic skills which are required for reading and writing which are learning the sounds of the letters, learning the formation of the letters, blending, recognising sounds in words and spelling words that are different or difficult (Jolly Phonics, n.d.). The concept has been popularised by the development of a number of products for the use of both parents and schools to aid students of all ages and abilities with their reading. Phonics provides the learner with that which is readily accessible, easily produced and comprehensible to them sounds, which can then be linked to words. There are a number of different approaches in terms of structure but I will be focusing on one, that of Jolly Phonics. To begin with children are taught the forty two main sounds in English in seven distinct groups: (Jolly Phonics, n.d.) These are known as digraphs and are accompanied by a series of actions (encompassing a multi sensory approach, examples of which are below) which correspond to the letters to help the children to remember them which gradually become unnecessary as the learner gains in confidence. s Weave hand in an  s  shape, like a snake, and say  ssssss a Wiggle fingers above elbow as if ants crawling on you and say  a, a, a. t Turn head from side to side as if watching tennis and say  t, t, t. i Pretend to be a mouse by wriggling fingers at end of nose and squeak  i, i, i. p   Pretend to puff out candles and say  p, p, p. n Make a noise, as if you are a plane hold arms out and say  nnnnnn. (Jolly Phonics, n.d) They learn each letter by its sound, for example a is for ant which will help with blending later in the process. The first group of letter above are introduced at the outset as they provide the greatest amount of three letter words when combined with each other. The students are then taught how to hold a pencil correctly followed by how to form letters in an appropriate way. This is followed by blending which is the process of articulating the individual sounds within a word before running them together to produce the whole. All children need to learn this stage and get better with practice and encouragement. This is often the key with those who have special needs having the encouragement and the confidence to try and not fear making mistakes. It may need the adult to say the parts of the word first to ensure that the pupil can hear them before repeating them which could be seen as the adult providing the support or scaffolding in order for the child to progress to the next level ( Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development). Games can be played like I-Spy to encourage children to listen for the sounds in different parts of words and blending cards can be helpful in this process. Spelling is a different issue with a number of possibilities available to aid in this learning process for example Look, Cover, Write, Check or Mnemonics (the first letter in each word of a saying spelling a word, e.g. fish Frogs In Silly Hats). As we can see from the above example of the teaching of reading and from teaching techniques in general there are advantages and disadvantages in each teaching method. If one wishes to get a safety message across about crossing a road it would not be appropriate for the children to find out by playing chicken with the cars! They would need to be given specific instructions as to how to accomplish the objective safely and if necessary practice in the playground in a role play situation to ensure that the message has been taken in. The basics in reading need to be given through instruction and practice before words can be used creatively in the context of story writing, telling and reading. Lots of practice and exposure to words in and around the classroom through colourful displays with pictures combined with words will lead to a comfort and familiarity with reading and the written word which is particularly valuable for those with learning difficulties. Reading is a basic and necessa ry skill which one needs not only to access a curriculum to be able to pass exams but to be able to function in the most basic way in life. Those with learning difficulties have the right to be taught and to learn this skill of communication; there is no one all encompassing way to achieve this and practitioners have to develop a number of skills and techniques to accommodate the different needs of the personalities in their care. It would appear that there needs to be a blend of both the behaviourist and cognitive approaches to get the best from children as some aspects need to be specifically taught whereas others can be guided and discovered through shared activity with both their peers and adults alike.

Distance Learning Essay -- Education Technology Technological Papers

Distance Learning Distance learning (education) has become an integral part of the education process over the past few decades and is growing in popularity as technology advances.(Willis 1992) describes distance education (as) "the organizational framework andprocess of providing instruction at a distance. Distance education takes place when ateacher and student(s) are physically separated, and technology†¦(is) used to bridge theinstruction gap." (Coutts 1996). Furthermore, "distance learning activities are designedto fit the specific context for learning, the nature of the subject matter; intended learningoutcomes, needs and goals of the learner, the learner's environment and the instructional echnologies and methods." (American Council of Education 1996). According to Moore and Thompson (1990), there are essential elements needed for effective distance learning to take place: *Be prompt in coming online and insist students do the same. *Use a natural style of delivery; speak slowly and enunciate clearly. *Maintain spontaneity, avoid reading from a script. *Use visuals effectively. *Use frequent changes of pace to maintain interest. *Frequently draw participants into discussions. *Always refer to participants by name. *Give short concluding summaries of the concepts presented. *Provide structure by effectively using authority. *Control verbal traffic. *Provide socio-emotional support by integrating late group members and encouraging humor. *Establish a democratic atmosphere by sharing authority and asking for participation. *Create a sense of shared space and history. *Model appropriate behavior. *Seek and clarify a common definition of terms. *Set an appropriate pace (Mo... ...ournal of Distance Education . Moore, Michael G. & Thompson, Melody M. (1990) The Effects of Distance Learning. A Summary of Literature. (Research Monograph, Number 2). Southern Ohio Telecommunications Consortium. Moore, Michael G. (1989, June). Distance Education: A Learning System. Lifelong Learning. pg. 8--11. "Distance Education: A Learning System." Simonson, M. (1997). Distance Education: Does Anyone Really Want to Learn At A Distance. Contemporary Education, 68. Page 104--107. Willis, B. (1998, Jan-Feb). Effective Distance Education Planning: Lessons Learned. Educational Technology. Willis, B. (1994). Distance Education: Strategies and Tools. New Jersey:Educational Technology Publications. Willis B. (1992). Effective Distance Education: A Primer for Faculty and Administrators. Monograph Series in Distance Education. 2

Brazilian foreign policy

The fact that Brazil is one of the most important emerging nations can not be denied. There is no doubt that this country leads the pack when it comes to economic and political supremacy in the southern part of the American continent. This has been made possible by the desire of this country to become a regional and global power to reckon with. To this end, most of the presidents that have ruled this nation since the end of the military rule in the 1980’s have come up with foreign policies that can be viewed as assuming an international look while at the same time trying to maintain the sovereignty of this nation.Most notable of these foreign policies is the one that is adopted by the current Brazilian president. When Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva took the helm of this country in 2003, he came up with a foreign policy that seemed to be in contrast in some ways to his predecessor’s. Fernando Henrique Cardoso’s foreign policy, when compared to that of Lula, shows some remarkable differences. Lula has been vocal in opposing the hegemony that is associated with American foreign policies.He tries to create an economic and political system that is independent on the American influence while at the same been recognized by America as an equal, rather than a puppet of the American government. This stance seemed to be criticized when he developed a brief relationship, a close one, with George W. Bush when he came to power in 2002. This may be the reason why his foreign policies have been regarded as been inconsistent. But he maintains a pessimistic view of the globalization phenomenon. He regards it as the tool that is used by the rich nations to stifle and exploit both the poor and the emerging nations.This paper is going to take a critical look at Lula’s foreign policy. The strong points of his policy will be reviewed, as well as the weaknesses and challenges. Lula’s Foreign Policy: Assertive? According to Hurrell (51), Lula can be descri bed as having taken a stand on international system that can be described as been mildly interesting. He views this international system with doubt, but goes ahead to say that it is possible for brazil to maintain an â€Å"activist and assertive foreign policy† (Hurrell 51).Cardoso’s foreign policy was regarded as not been assertive enough. He was once quoted saying that â€Å"creating friction with Washington is to lose† (Hurrell 53). This administration was not seen as defending the interests of this Latin American nation sufficiently. Lula sought to adapt a different style, aided by his supporters in the Workers Party. Lula emphasized the fact that the instability of the international system coupled by the centralization of powers in few hands was not a recipe for the development and sovereignty of Brazil.He was of the view that United States, together with a handful of allies, held far too much power in the international arena, such that if anything were to happen to them, it will affect most of the world’s nations negatively (Hurrell 51). He has always pointed to the current economic crisis as an example of how blunders committed by the wealthy nation of the world led to miseries of the poor nations. His disdain for the developed nations was evident when he talked down on Gordon Brown in a press conference in March 2009. He made the quote that made international headlines for days.â€Å"This crisis was caused by whiter people with blue eyes (sic)†¦. they pretended to know all about economics† (SkyNews 2009). He said this in front of Gordon brown, one his so called â€Å"white people with blue eyes†. Apart from showing how much he detested western powers, this statement was a clear indication of the fact that Lula does not fear these greedy westerners. He will stand by what he believes to be the truth, even if it did not go down well with the whites. The only other head of state that can be expected to make su ch a statement is maybe the Muslim leaders. But a president from a reportedly friendly nation to the Americans!Lula contends that the hyped global economy is more injurious than it is beneficial to the emerging nations (Hurrell 52). By this form of trade, the western nations entrench themselves in the world political and economic arena, while crises are created for the poor. A pointer to this is the current economic crisis. There is also a lot of inequality both internally and externally. This is because global trade benefits few individuals inside the local economies and few nations in the international arena. Lula’s administration has always sought to maintain the autonomy of this nation in the international arena (Hurrell 52).But at the same time, it needs to forge ties with other nations around the world. Lula has concentrated in forming ties with other emerging nations, shunning the western and developed countries (Barriaux 1). This will mitigate the external vulnerabili ties associated with disassociation with the world superpowers. That is why Lula has shunned the North American’s Free Trade Area. Instead, he has resorted to strengthening regional cooperation with neighbors like Uruguay, Paraguay and others across the continent like South Africa, china and India (Fitzpatrick 1).Lula has started to give Washington jitters when it became obvious that he was intent in developing Brazilian nuclear technology (Hurrell 52). His administration is engaged in industrial secrets. But at the same time, he is wise enough to maintain friendly relations with the nuclear inspection teams that have been deployed to Brazil. Lula’s Foreign Policy: Successful? His policies have been hailed by many people as been a success story. This is considering the fact that countries which have tried to defy the western superpowers have fallen by the way side.But Brazil blazes ahead, albeit jerkily, even after defying America Washington and London. But still, some critics have been opining that Lula’s foreign policy is inconsistent. But maybe, the consistency of Lula’s foreign policy lies in its inconsistency. Perhaps the strength of his foreign policy lies in these so called inconsistencies. Brazil has always maintained a tough stance when it came to global trade. She was defiant that no dumping of low quality goods from foreign economies will be done on her economy.This was contradicted when Lula’s administration acknowledged China as a â€Å"market economy† (Fitzpatrick 1). This was in 2004. What this means is that Brazil can not stop the flow of low quality goods from China. China is known for her tendency to flood the international economy with her cheap, low quality goods. This is death sentence to the local industries. Brazil has resisted this until this point in time. China refused to back Lula in his bid to get a permanent slot at the United Nations’ Security Council (Fitzpatrick 1). This was seen as inconsistency in Lula’s stance of an autonomous nation.However, in 2009, Lula was in Beijing. This was perhaps payback time for China. While he was there, he signed a deal with Hu Jintao that would see Brazil export a total of 200,000 barrels of crude oil to Beijing (Barriaux 1). Also, a loan was offered to him from the Chinese government that was to spur development in Brazil. This was in excess of 10-billion dollar (Barriaux 1). He took his disdain of the American regime there when he said that plans were underway to abandon the American dollar as the medium of exchange when the two countries were conducting trade.This is the consistency of Lula’s inconsistent foreign policy that the writer is talking about. Lula, by signing the contract with the Chinese government, expressed his desire of cementing ties with other nations apart from the West. Brazil is a gross exporter of agricultural products, and this is the backbone of her economy (Fitzpatrick 1). When Lula an d his lieutenants take the pessimistic and negative regard of the global market, one is left wondering where Lula plans to sell the entire Soya from this country.However, Lula has been calculative as ever. He led a boycott of the Doha round table talks in 2003, leading a group of developing nations out of the venue until the developed nations addressed their concerns. Celso Amorim, the foreign minister, led a successful crusade against subsidies that the European Union and America offered to their farmers (Fitzpatrick 1). All this was geared towards safeguarding the agricultural exports of the country. Lula has worked hard to revive Mercosur, the regional trade bloc of the Latin American nations (Hurrell 55).This is assign that he is interested in asserting regional control and influence in this region. Been a member of this organization, Lula will be able to bargain with the Americans and Britons when it comes to trade matters. This has given Lula leverage such that he is able to s hun the western nations and at the same time make himself relevant to them. He has opted for this organization while at the same time resisting the Free Trade Area espoused by United States. Conclusion Lula has adopted a foreign policy stance that is bold but at the same time risky.He has sought to assert the presence of the Brazilian nation in the global arena while at the same time refusing to ride on the tail coats of the developed nations, like America. He has a pessimistic view of the global economy. This is risky considering the fact that Brazil is an exporting economy, and thus has to rely on the global market for success. Lula has tried to forge coalitions with other emerging nations like India and China. This way, Lula has eliminated the external vulnerability that the western countries would have taken advantage of by alienating Brazil with the rest of the developing nations.References Barriaux, M. C. Lula Signs Financial Agreements with Beijing. Retrieved from http://news . yahoo. com/s/afp/20090519/wl_asia_afp/chinabrazildiplomacytradecurrency_20090519162806, on 13th June, 2009. Fitzpatrick, J. K. Inconsistency of Brazil’s Foreign Policy. Retrieved from http://www. brazzil. com/2005-mainmenu-79/159-december-2005/9491. html, on 13th June, 2009. Hurrell, S. A. Lula’s Brazil: A Rising Power, but Going Where? Oxford: Oxford University, 51-57. SkyNews. White People with Blue Eyes. Retrieved from http://www. foxnews. com/story/0,2933,510954,00. html, on 13th June, 2009.

Employee Performance Essay

The process of producing an environment in which individuals can perform duties to the best of his or her ability is known as performance management. The processes of performance management start when the company requires an employee to perform a specific and ends when an employee departs from the organization (Heathfield, 2013). At Riordan Manufacturing there are many important positions that depend on the performance management system to ensure that employees achieve company set goals and objections. Riordan Manufacturing performance management systems are very important. The two positions chosen by Team D to discuss in this paper are the customer service rep and chief financial officer. Team D will describe the general function of performance management systems, suggest two job evaluation methods for the positions, suggest two job evaluation methods for each position, and determine the advantages and disadvantages of the methods concerning each position. Team D will also compare and contrast possible compensation plans for the two positions and explain the importance of providing employee benefit plan to the customer service rep and chief financial officer positions at Riordan Manufacturing. General Function of Performance Management Riordan Manufacturing uses performance managing systems that include annual pay modifications based upon performance, along with employee recognition programs. Riordan’s determines the company’s annual pay changes by the position in relation to the external market, along with performance expectations set by the company. The performance expectations fall into three categories, which are does not meet, meets, and exceeds. Increase in pay is always a motivator for increasing performance and productivity among  employees. Riordan Manufacturing also offers three kinds of awards/programs for their employees under their performance management systems. The company offers an outstanding employee award once a year. Riordan’s management and employees nominate high performance employee who have achieved high rating in employee performance. The company’s committee of executives reviews the candidates selected and presents the winner with the most outstanding employee ’s award. One qualification is modeling respect for diversity, which is something that Riordan is serious about. Riordan rewards the value the company has in the morals of employees. The other award given by Riordan is the seniority award. The company gives these awards to employees as he or she complete career milestones at one year, fifth year, tenth year, and 20th year. Although the seniority award is not monetary, it is important for the employees to notice that Riordan is noticing their loyalty and contributions to the company. The last program offered by Riordan under their performance management systems is the employee suggestion program. The company gives this reward to employees when he or she make suggestions for products put into place. The employees receive a $25 check and their picture in the company newsletter; although this does not measure the staff’s daily performance it does motivate them to make contributions for the good of the company. Using performance management systems helps Riordan rate the employee’s performances and motivates each employee to work as a team. For example, using the annual pay adjustments it would becoming apparent to Riordan executives that employees were not doing their jobs if they rated â€Å"does not meet† for two years in a row, it would be time for a face-to-face. Job Evaluation Methods Riordan Manufacturing currently employs 550 employees. The company has positions ranging from production to chief legal counsel. The company takes pride in attracting highly qualified employees. Each position at Riordan plays a vital role to the company’s success. Therefore, company expects each employee to focus on achieving the company’s mission and goals. Many of the company’s job functions performed by employees assist Riordan in maintaining a competitive advantage on the market. Two important positions held at Riordan Manufacturing are the customer service representative and the  Chief Financial Officer. The customer service is one of the many faces of Riordan as the employee interacts directly with the customers of Riordan. The Chief Financial Officer takes on the responsibilities within Riordan and directs the human resources functions along with the financial operations. The customer service representative is a valuable position that would work well wit h the classification method. The classification method works well with organizations that have several locations or many employees. Therefore, Riordan classifies each customer service representative with other similar job content or classes. The advantage of using the classification method is that it will allow Riordan to organize easily the many positions along with establishing a compensation package for each position based upon their classification. Some of the disadvantages may include several positions appearing to fit in more than one class or the classifications may seem biased or subjective judgments. With the chief financial officer (CFO) possessing a more critical position and role within the company, the ranking method may also be beneficial to Riordan. The ranking method for job evaluations is quite simple and in most instances inexpensive. This can often reduce the money spent on implementing strategic techniques and be applied in other areas of Riordan such as company improvements, or employee rewards. The disadvantage of the ranking method is that it can be subjective or rely heavily on a person or group of people to determine the worth of each position. There are several job methods used to perform job evaluations; however, it is essential for Riordan or any organization to determine which one will most suites the company and aid in its success. Compensation Plans It is important to have competitive and attractive compensation plans to ensure that Riordan attracts highly qualified employees. There are many options or approaches to use with compensation plans. The employee’s position often dictates what type of compensation plan he or she receives. For a customer service representative (CSR), compensation plans may include a basic wage structure along with a merit pay incentive. With merit pay, the CSR receives an increase in pay based on a percentage (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007). Employees who perform better typically receive a greater percentage increase. Another option is a pay-for performance program. This option uses  performance measures to determine the employee’s pay rate and not just time spent on the job. Each employee’s pay rate depends on his or her individual, team, department, or organizational productivity (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007). Both of these compensation plans are effective but some employees may worried about not knowing what his or her pay rate is ahead of time in the pay-for-performance program. The compensation plans for the CFO are different from those provided for CSR’s. As an executive member of Riordan, the CFO’s salary is substantially higher than the lower-level employees. For example, the current Riordan CFO, Dale Edgel, received an annual salary of $125, 00 with the ability to earn up to 30% of his salary in executive bonuses (Riordan, 1999). Compensation plans for executive employees are considerably higher because of his or her level of responsibility. That responsibility not only provides the executives with higher salaries but also compensation plans that include stock option plans. Executive compensation plans serve the same purpose as those used from lower-level employees. Executive positions typically require specialized or advanced education and employees who meet those requirements can be very selective when choosing a job. The compensation plans for those positions must be very attractive to appeal to those individuals. Importance of Employee Benefits Riordan understand that benefits are essential in today’s workforce to retain current talent and attract new high-level talent. Riordan has benefit packages required by law, such as Social Security, Workers’ Compensation, Unemployment Compensation, and FMLA. The company also offers vacation benefits, 401k plans, childcare assistance plan, dental, educational assistance, flextime scheduling, and holiday pay to attract and retain employees. The company offers these benefits to full-time employees when hired into the company, and he or she can accrue more perks as tenure at Riordan grows. Riordan understands that employees need a benefit package that promote a work life balance, the ability to take care of his or her family in case of a medical emergency, and to plan for his or her future. Whether the employee is the CFO or a CSR the benefit package does not change. Employees who believe a company is willing to take care of him or her makes job satisfaction and employee engagement much easier to  achieve. Furthermore, employees who believe he or she is capable of advancing his or her career and the company paying for it helps entry-level employee. The company encourages customer service rep to believe that he or she has a future in becoming a future chief financial officer. Riordan provides Education Assistance Programs to help employees grow a skill set that relates to his or her role in Riordan. Although it does not guarantee advancement, it does promote engagement and sustain performance for the company’s staff. Riordan commits to making each employee know he or she is a value to the company from the top of the company to the entry-level jobs. The company understands that providing benefits in today’s economy is important in attracting the most talented and motivated individuals and believe the company’s array of benefits help accomplish goals and promote a healthy work environment. Conclusion Riordan Manufacturing recognizes the processes of performance management are essential in today’s working environment. Riordan Manufacturing Corporation’s process of performance management will assist the company in enhancing employee job satisfaction and commitment. Riordan Manufacturing used various job performance methods for each individual job position the company. These job performance methods help the company to maintain financial strength and promote employee growth. Riordan performance management’s process also includes an attractive compensation, employee benefits plan to attract highly qualified employees. Using this process is what helps Riordan Manufacturing ensure employees achieve company goals, and objections, and sustain the company’s employee job satisfaction. References DeCenzo, D., & Robbins, S. (2007). Fundamentals of human resource management (9th ed.), retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database. Heathfield, S., 2013, Performance Management, Retrieved from http://humanresources.about.com/od/glossaryp/g/perform_mgmt.htm Riordan, Michael (August 15, 1999) Retrieved from https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/secure/aapd/CIST/VOP/Business/Riordan/docs/HR/EmpFiles/Dale%20Edgel%20Offer%20Letter.pdf

Cutting the Mustard

Cutting the Mustard Cutting the Mustard Cutting the Mustard By Maeve Maddox I read an online comment in which the writer said that something wouldn’t â€Å"cut the muster.† I cruised the web a bit to see if this is a common alteration of the idiom to cut the mustard. It doesn’t seem to be too wide spread, but it’s out there. Apparently there’s a mix-up with the expression to pass muster, meaning â€Å"to meet a required standard.† Ex. You call that project â€Å"finished†? It doesn’t pass muster with me! muster: Chiefly Mil. An act of calling together soldiers, sailors, prisoners, etc.; an assembling of people for inspection, exercises, etc. We can say: The general mustered his troops. The private did not pass muster because his shoes were dirty. The expression to cut the mustard derives from associations with the spicy condiment. The expression keen as mustard dates from 1679. Ex. That lad is keen as mustard. (He’s enthusiastic and bright.) Mustard is pungent. It’s strong. It’s hot stuff. It adds flavor to bland food. There was a cowboy expression, the proper mustard, which meant â€Å"the genuine article.† Perhaps from that use mustard came to mean â€Å"the best.† The word â€Å"cut† in the expression hasn’t anything to do with snipping off leaves. It’s used in the sense it has in the expression to cut a fine figure. A person who can cut the mustard has strength and energy. It’s the lack of these qualities that would cause someone to say, â€Å"He’s too old to cut the mustard.† Being unable to cut the mustard doesnt always imply that a person is too old. It may mean that the person, of whatever age, simply hasnt got what it takes to perform a particular activity: Perhaps I could get a job as a maid in somebody’s houseIdden convinced me I would never cut the mustard at this occupation. Hons and Rebels, Jessica Mitford. Marlene Dietrich and Rosemary Clooney used to sing a song called Too Old to Cut the Mustard. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:When to Capitalize Animal and Plant NamesUsed To vs. Use ToEnglish Grammar 101: Prepositions

All quiet on the Western Front1 essays

All quiet on the Western Front1 essays Whenever one reads or hears about World War I or World War II, you hear of the struggles and triumphs of the British, Americans or any of the other Allies. And they always speak of the evil and menacing German army. However, All Quiet on the Western Front gives the reader some insight and a look at a group of young German friends who are fighting in World War I. This story is neither an accusation nor a confession, and least of all an adventure, for death is not an adventure to those who stand face to face with it. It will try simply to tell of a generation of men who, even though they may have escaped its shells, were destroyed by the war..... The soldiers of this war felt they were neither heroes nor did they know what they were fighting for. These soldiers were pulled from the innocence of their childhood, and thrown into a world of rage. Yet somehow they still managed to have heart and faith in man kind and could not look the opponent in the eye and kill him. For he was man too, he too had a wife and children at home, he too was pulled out of his home to fight for a cause he didn't understand. The comrades were taught to fight. They were taught to kill the British and their allies. The comrades had no personal reason to fight with the other, except that it was an order and must be done. They were not fighting because they held a strong passion for their country, or felt deeply for the cause of the war. Albert simply states, ...almost all of us are simple folk. And in France, too, the majority of men are laborers, workmen, or poor clerks. Now just why would a French blacksmith or a French shoemaker want to attack us? No, its merely the rulers. I had never seen a Frenchman before I came here, and it will be just the same with the majority of Frenchmen as regards us. They weren't asked about it any more then we were. These soldiers lacked passion for the war. They ...

Brothers Grimm Fairytales

Introduction: I know that fairy tales are strange and even realistic. There are animals, magical foods, and mothers of the gods in a fairy tale. They are also used as a basis for entertainment and most children begin in childhood. Almost all fairy tales are always happy even after the end, starting with Zeng Geshi. Personally, my experience with fairy tales is that I like certain fairy tales and stories that I can not see. I like Beauty and the Beast and Cinderella. As a child, the fairy tale has given me hope for happiness forever. Many of the fairy tales that you read or watched over the years are not original versions of fairy tales. Walt Disney World and many other companies have adopted a lot of Grimm Brothers fairy tales and have changed them to fit the eyes of many young viewers. The Grimm Brothers is one of the most influential scholars in the world. Grimm's fairy tale is the source of the most famous work dating back to prehistoric times. They gathered most of the stories fr om children and family stories. INTRODUCTION: I decided to study a fairy tale, especially the Grimm brothers' fairy tale. A fairy tale is a short story, composed of fantasy characters, places, objects. Many of them are made of fairies and mysterious creatures. Most fairy tales start with Fairy Land or Remote Land. In many cases, in fairy tales, things become addictive and can talk and move. The most common characters in a fairy tale are the prince and the princess. Many fairy tales have been repeated over generations. Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm were famous writers at the beginning of 1800, and they changed the way fairy tales are observed forever. The Grimm Brothers are best known for their creative interpretation of popular fairy tales, such as Rapunzel, Snow White, Hansel, Gretel. Dark and tragic themes were used to create Grimm's fairytale, and the use of these themes changed dramatically from the normal 1800 fairy tale. The Grimm brothers are responsible for creating a new dark sid e for the children 's story, and their creativity can be seen with their early life, work and fame. When the Grimm brothers in their era began to write stories, they became known with the dark and unforgetable themes they wrote. Amazingly, the stories of Brothers Grimm are the first fairytale (candlelight) not for children. Brothers Grimm often rewrites old folklore to better adapt to their times. (Candlelight) Another unique point of the Grimm Brothers story is the ability to begin with a verbal narrative of children's literature. Long ago, the story was sketched on the wall of the cave so that people could find a story. The children were talked about seeing the drama as a form of songs, stories, and literature. Many traditional stories are based on culture and ethics. These stories have always preserved the culture and have been handed down to each generation. Like other oral stories, these stories are changing throughout the year. of

Argumentative ethical essay - Marijuana should be legal in the United

Argumentative ethical - Marijuana should be legal in the United States - Essay Example The stance taken in this paper is that marijuana must not be regarded as illegal since cigarettes and alcohol are considered legal at the same time. This is a very wrong phenomenon that has taken center stage and must either be diverted in one direction or the other to make it look balanced. Marijuana’s intake is a very legal right of every American and the laws which are made against the intake of marijuana are not only unethical but also in direct contrast of the rights of the common Americans. These laws and regulations must have a solid base before they could be obeyed in the most basic sense. There needs to be an understanding on the part of the lawmakers to realize the pitfalls and rights of the people before promulgating any laws that embody the banishment of marijuana within the boundaries of United States of America. Crude marijuana, as researchers have been able to extract possesses more than 400 chemicals as a combination. This however occurs during smoking when all of these 400 chemicals split up into thousands of other chemicals themselves. Notwithstanding the nearly 12,000 studies done on the medical utility of marijuana, a staggering common consent does exist in the scientific community of late which suggests that the smoked form of marijuana cannot be termed as a medicine. One should thus make laws that go against putting the users or sellers of marijuana in jails as they have a right to exercise their lives in the best manner that they deem fit. (Hough, 2003) Then again, cigarettes and alcohol comprise of tobacco and a host of other items within them but no one raises voice against their use. Marijuana is singled out as the only item that receives all the criticism and this is a very depressing situation. There must be criticism for other products as well and singling out marijuana is no t only wrong but also unethical from the people’s perspective when it comes to their rights. Similar bans

Friendship and companionship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Friendship and companionship - Essay Example It clearly shows how close two friends can be. The author was attracted to Queequeg because of his traits and unexpected behavior which is child like and got attracted and started observing his funny behavior by staring at him. His mental ability was so less that he can count only up to fifty. Then he starts counting from one again. By the understanding of the story it is clearly evident the kind of friendship between an innocent friend and a person with good presence of mind. Friends can be so close that they can share literally any thing between them from money to clothes. The story can be a lesson to the friends who regularly argue and fight every now and then. An eye opener, an ideal character, goodness and loyalty at heart. In today's age where gay couples are expressing their love openly, friends like Queequeg and the author are so intimate with each other but with out creating situations like Gay couples. The story idolizes that even money cannot part two friends. For example: when Queequeg took his thirty cents of silver from his pocket and mechanically divides then into half and puts in the pocket author. The author was actually spell bound with the gratitude of the Queequeg. Friends can be so close at times that they share the same bed together. A friendship like this can make an atheist to pray to god.

Barriers to Business Communications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Barriers to Business Communications - Essay Example Because the lack of feedback is exist between the call centre agents and the customers due to the cultural customs. In our society the status symbol does exist and this problem is heading upwards in the organizational structure when the manager is on the executive post and he/she cannot transform his/her policies or the programs properly to the lower management the reason behind are the status or designation that creates a hurdle in an effective communication. Moreover, individual personal behavior is essential and an effective role in communication (L. Erven, 2008). If the distortion is exist between the sender and receiver due to any reason like technical jargon, social, racial, educational background, and ethnic etc background also creates a lack of communication (L. Erven, 2008). Organizational culture and norms in which the employee is working also the prime element behind effective communication. Like ignoring the employees in a few prickly matters, completely ignoring, embarrass every time when the employee is eager to share his/her ideas, inputs or thoughts etc. The factors of reluctance, refusal etc also the lack behind effective communication (L. Erven, 2008).

Contemporary Middle East Discussion Questions (1 source each, approx Essay

Contemporary Middle East Discussion Questions (1 source each, approx 125 words) - Essay Example This is well seen in the case of Egypt and Persia in which case the effects of these forces continue to play. Many people were always skeptical to the idea of giving away their resources as a way of creating much interconnection with the state (Finkel, 2006). 2) The Wahhabi Muslim fundamentalists believed that Muslims should return to the very fundamental Islamic ways as outlined in the Quran and the Hadith. Much of their beliefs were informed by the teachings of medieval theologians like Taymiyyah. They believed in the Islamic doctrine of Tawhid in which the unity and uniqueness of God were greatly revered (Philby, 2004). More importantly, these Muslim fundamentals believed that philosophical interpretations of the Quran and the Hadith could mislead the people. As such they totally opposed such interpretations. On the other hand, Muslim modernists like Malkom Khan were pushing for the reconciliation of the Islamic faith with such modern values like democracy, nationalism, equality a nd progress. In this case, the critical evaluation of issues in the context of jurisprudence was greatly cherished. Indeed, these beliefs have considerable impact in the Middle East to this day. 3) The Osmanlilik reform movement was developed during the first constitutional era in the Ottoman Empire. ... In this regard, aspects of head tax, conscription, and military service were applied to everyone in equal measure. Citizenship of the empire was therefore a common affair irrespective of any orientation or affiliation. It should however be realized that Osmanlilik was greatly rejected by many Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Many of the adherents of Osmanlilik were lost during the first Balkan War and this led to its eventual failure. 4) The Young Turks Revolution of 1908 was driven by a group of likeminded Turkish nationalists, pluralists and a group of other secularists who totally blamed the Sultan for the harried state of the Empire at the time. The Sultan had suspended the parliament and this was restored effectively by the revolution. It was however realized that the process of replacing monarchic institutions with constitutional ones was not easy as had been initially presumed. The unity of the young Turks and the wide support they enjoyed across the land and beyond was indeed i nstrumental in their successful deposition of the Sultan in 1909. In a way, the Young Turks basically stood for change as opposed to the state of affairs realized at the time. Their goals were therefore different from those of the Osmanlilik (Ruggiero, 2003). 5) The general area of the Middle East greatly attracted much of Europe leading to the European domination of the region and the subsequent influence. Politically, the United Kingdom began this influence by taking over the government of Cyprus which was a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. This was basically as a result of the Cyprus Convention. In this regard, the British greatly influenced the political, social and economic life of this region. In the same way as Syria became part of the French protectorate, it was

Implementation, Strategic Controls, and Contingency Plans Essay - 2

Implementation, Strategic Controls, and Contingency Plans - Essay Example It is due to this reason I choose to venture in the education sector but in a different venture. The business venture is the Online State of the Art Educational Portal. The venture can also be referred to in personal state of the art educational portal. With parents with the thirst of interactive education for their children this venture aims to prove a quench of that. This approach is unique and provides the best quality form of education. To add to its advantages, the approach involves the integration of parents who outline the weaknesses and strengths of a child. Additionally, the approach a rectangular circulation and interaction of tasks. It provides a child-parent-teacher interaction basis. This mode of interaction lacks in most educational systems. With current trends taking over in the society, parents need to be part and parcel of their children growth and this approach provides the best medium of interaction. The implementation of this approach however must come with its shortcomings. It is this logic assumption that makes it possible to have a business environmental analysis. Both the internal and external environment factors can affect this venture. With the environmental analysis, there is a clear picture of shortcomings and the possible ways to dealing with them (De Wit, 2003). Apart from the external environmental analysis there is the need for a SWOT analysis. The SWOT analysis provides the entrepreneur with a picture of their strength and weaknesses. It is satisfied by one maximizing on their strengths and avoiding and dealing with their weaknesses. Additionally, the analysis tends to provide warning to an organization on which parts to cushion to prevent heavy losses caused by misfortunes. External environmental factors are factors which are not in the capacity of the institution to deal with. However, they must be considered since they affect the operations of the institutions.

Barriers to Business Communications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Barriers to Business Communications - Essay Example Because the lack of feedback is exist between the call centre agents and the customers due to the cultural customs. In our society the status symbol does exist and this problem is heading upwards in the organizational structure when the manager is on the executive post and he/she cannot transform his/her policies or the programs properly to the lower management the reason behind are the status or designation that creates a hurdle in an effective communication. Moreover, individual personal behavior is essential and an effective role in communication (L. Erven, 2008). If the distortion is exist between the sender and receiver due to any reason like technical jargon, social, racial, educational background, and ethnic etc background also creates a lack of communication (L. Erven, 2008). Organizational culture and norms in which the employee is working also the prime element behind effective communication. Like ignoring the employees in a few prickly matters, completely ignoring, embarrass every time when the employee is eager to share his/her ideas, inputs or thoughts etc. The factors of reluctance, refusal etc also the lack behind effective communication (L. Erven, 2008).

Implementation, Strategic Controls, and Contingency Plans Essay - 2

Implementation, Strategic Controls, and Contingency Plans - Essay Example It is due to this reason I choose to venture in the education sector but in a different venture. The business venture is the Online State of the Art Educational Portal. The venture can also be referred to in personal state of the art educational portal. With parents with the thirst of interactive education for their children this venture aims to prove a quench of that. This approach is unique and provides the best quality form of education. To add to its advantages, the approach involves the integration of parents who outline the weaknesses and strengths of a child. Additionally, the approach a rectangular circulation and interaction of tasks. It provides a child-parent-teacher interaction basis. This mode of interaction lacks in most educational systems. With current trends taking over in the society, parents need to be part and parcel of their children growth and this approach provides the best medium of interaction. The implementation of this approach however must come with its shortcomings. It is this logic assumption that makes it possible to have a business environmental analysis. Both the internal and external environment factors can affect this venture. With the environmental analysis, there is a clear picture of shortcomings and the possible ways to dealing with them (De Wit, 2003). Apart from the external environmental analysis there is the need for a SWOT analysis. The SWOT analysis provides the entrepreneur with a picture of their strength and weaknesses. It is satisfied by one maximizing on their strengths and avoiding and dealing with their weaknesses. Additionally, the analysis tends to provide warning to an organization on which parts to cushion to prevent heavy losses caused by misfortunes. External environmental factors are factors which are not in the capacity of the institution to deal with. However, they must be considered since they affect the operations of the institutions.

John Winthrop Essay Example for Free

John Winthrop Essay John Winthrop is one of the outstanding figures in American history who through their dauntless pursuit of new opportunities and staunch adherence to their ideals have won for themselves a permanent place in the national hall of fame. Born in England, he brought all his intellectual power and religious fervor to build a new country in North America. His importance as the many times elected governor of Massachusetts led Francis J. Bremer to call Winthrop â€Å"Americas Forgotten Founding Father† (Bremer, 2003). Winthrop’s decision to join the Massachusetts Bay Colony was inspired by his ardent belief that Catholic ritual was a sin for the Anglican Church and that Puritans needed to cleanse themselves of this religious practice, sheltered in a new getaway in a foreign land. Obtaining the royal charter for what seemed on the surface a purely commercial enterprise, Winthrop and other influential Puritans in 1629 set on a journey that brought them to New England. His remarkable leadership ability was recognized by his companions immediately as he was elected the governor of the future colony even before the journey. Afterwards, Winthrop was re-elected to this post 12 times in total. Winthrop’s legacy lives on in the modern-day political community. Of special importance is his famous â€Å"City on a Hill† sermon in which he proclaimed the creation of a godly community as the goal of the new settlement. It should be noted that Winthrop, for all his religious zest, was also more moderate than many of his contemporaries and allies in the demonstration of his views. In the time of his governorship, he tried to keep the number of executions for heresy to a minimum and interfered with the introduction of some of the more conservative customs as the veiling of women. John Winthrop’s contribution to the development of North American colonies as well as his lasting intellectual legacy made him a memorable figure in the US history. Bibliography Black, Robert C. Iii. The Younger John Winthrop. New York: Columbia University Press, 1968. Bremer, Francis J. John Winthrop: Americas Forgotten Founding Father. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. Noll, Mark. â€Å"Founding Fathers? † First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion and Public Life, 140 (February 2004): 38+. Waters, Thomas Franklin. A Sketch of the Life of John Winthrop, the Younger: Founder of Ipswich, Massachusetts, in 1633. Cambridge, MA: John Wilson and Son, 1899.

History of Police Stop and Search Powers in the UK

History of Police Stop and Search Powers in the UK This dissertation charts the history of the stop and search powers of the British police from the old days of the notorious Brixham riots, the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry up to the modern day. Throughout this journey we will examine the use of stop and search under various statutes, concentrating on the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 and culminating in a discussion of the Terrorism Act 2000. The effect of the enforcement of the stop and search powers on the community will be examined. 1.0 Chapter I 1.1 Police Use of Discretion and Stop and Search The use of discretion is at the centre of the debates on police powers; that is the ability of police officers to make what are essentially subjective judgements in legal situations and still be operating within the boundaries of law. In fact, the use of discretion covers almost every aspect of police work, so the initial decision to stop and search a suspect to the decision to charge and prosecute for an offence in court. Discretion can take the form of whether or not to pursue an action, for example, whether or not to make an arrest, even where the grounds for arrest are evident. The law allows the police a wide range of lawful possibilities, to make a decision based on their own individual professional judgement about particular situations. In whatever decision a police officer makes, he or she is accountable to the law and not to his or her superiors. Police officers cannot be given orders by their superiors on how they should; for example, whether to arrest one person and not another. Thus, unlike in most hierarchical organisations, the greatest power in terms of law enforcement lies with the officers on the beat and not their superiors. The area of stop and search has aroused much academic research because it is an area where the officer on the beat has wide and often unsupervised discretion to enforce the law. More importantly, this is an area wherein a police officer can deprive someone of their freedom of movement even though there is may be no evidence that the person is committing, has committed or is about to commit an offence. Research evidence points to allegations that the police are unfairly targeting certain sectors of the community, in particular black and Asian people, with regard to their use of stop and search. It is extremely difficult to monitor an individual officers use of discretion in this area of police work. There are provisions for supervision by superiors and some training is usually provided for officers but there is more to be done in terms of monitoring the use of stop and search. In addition, there are Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) regulations on how stop and search is to be used in a non-discriminatory manner. However, it is still difficult to control the use of discretion in the use of stop and search. The discretionary and discriminatory use of stop and search powers (then the Stop and Search (SUS) law) by the Metropolitan Police (MET) was one of the major causes of the Brixton riots in 1981. The METs public pronouncement that Black people were in the majority amongst the muggers in London and the emerging labelling of Black communities as criminal and drug infested provided the legitimate backing for a militaristic policing of Brixton and the justification of the indiscriminate use of SUS on the residents of the area. This was an example of where public perceptions and politics give support to the use of discretion in policing, in this regard, the use of stop and search. The same scenario can be seen in the current use of stop and search in the UK (and presumably the USA) post-9:11. The scope for the use of discretion in stop and search has been significantly expanded in recent criminal justice, public order and anti-terrorism legislation whereby the reasonable suspicion element appears to have been pushed to the limit. The result has been very high figures of stop and search of the Asian Muslim population in the UK under a variety of anti-terror legislation. The use of discretion in police use of stop and search is still seriously being debated in academic and political circles, especially in relation to the issue of police racism. Minority ethnic people are not the only ones apparently discriminated against because of police use of discretion in stop and search. Young people are also believed to experience discrimination. In addition, variables of place (i.e. geographical area) and time of day or night come into play in understanding police use of discretion in stop and search (Clancy, Hough, Aust and Kershaw 2001). The use of police powers is important in the academic discourse about how the state rules through the law and its apparatuses. Police-citizenship relationship is essentially a power relationship at the micro-level. This relationship is often seen as an expression of how the state treats certain sectors of society at the macro-level. In other words, police powers are often seen as the personification of state power. 1.2 Monitoring It is apparent that until recent years, most police forces did not have information systems in place for monitoring stop and search. Even with the requirement to provide data on the ethnic breakdown of searches, some forces relied on counting stop and search by hand. This laborious paper exercise simply allowed forces to provide a breakdown of search by ethnic group to fulfil the requirements of Sec. 95 of the Criminal Justice Act 1991 which requires that the Home Office publish ethnic monitoring data (Quinton and Bland 1999, p2) When it comes to monitoring the use of the stop and search powers, different constabularies record different information. This makes comparisons difficult and the question of proportionality more complex. The main point however, is that constabularies must be able to monitor the use of these powers and to thoroughly and proficiently able to analyse the data. In order to achieve this, the police or external staff who are carrying out such analyses must have appropriate monitoring skills. Fair use of police stop and search powers has the potential for raising public confidence in the police. In December 2004 South Yorkshire police said in its Statement of Agreed Policy (South Yorkshire Statement 2004); the use of stop and search powers directly impacts upon our relationship with the public. Historically, the use of stop and search has sparked much debate, as well as causing friction between the police and the public, particularly following publication of statistics showing apparent disproportionate use with regard to minority ethnic groups. Our use of this power must be fair and open to scrutiny, balancing the rights of individuals with the safety of the public, whilst at the same time increasing public confidence. It is an area where we will always come under scrutiny for evidence of unfairness or discrimination. The manner and approach an officer takes should at all times be sensitive, lawful, and effective in order to ensure public confidence and reassurance. (Appendix p2) Current national data on the use of stop and search power (e.g. Sec.95 Criminal Justice Act 1991) demonstrate considerable variation between constabularies which, when aggregated, indicate that black people and, increasingly Asians are more likely to be stopped and searched than their white counterparts, even in regions where the black and minority ethnic population is extremely small. In 1997-98, for example, Home Office figures revealed that one million stops and searches were carried out by the police under the Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) of which 11% were of black people, 5% Asian and 1% other non-white origin (Home Office, 1998, p. 5). The explanation for differential use of stop and search powers is complex. Rates of stops and searches differ between geographical areas and between ethnic minorities, more so if one applies the 16+1 ethnic categories. However, most statistics are still recorded in the 3+1 ethnic classification White, Black Asian and other. This has made it difficult to assess the use of stop and search powers on the smaller minorities such as Chinese people, people of mixed heritage and refugees. In addition, most records of stop and search are likely to be an undercount. Home Office research has suggested that most constabularies are presently not equipped to undertake the required, detailed analysis of stop and search or any other relevant data (Fitzgerald, 1997). The result of this state of affairs is that senior officers cannot identify precisely which of their divisions have staff who are using the powers in a biased way and, therefore, the individual officers who should be made accountable for their actions. Also, it is very doubtful if lower ranked supervisory staff, sergeants and inspectors in particular, have the skills to understand the analyses undertaken and to manage their officers appropriately if a biased use of stop and search (or any other powers for that matter) is identified This is, indeed, a serious issue (Holdaway S.1999 para.6 (v)) As indicated above in relation to the smaller minorities, another important issue, especially in relation to disproportionality, is how ethnic monitoring is done. A Home Office research about ethnic monitoring identified a police ambivalence about and, sometimes, hostility towards ethnic monitoring. The researchers summarized their findings in the following way; The research found that most police officers appeared to view ethnic monitoring as irrelevant at best; at worst, it was resented and/or feared as a stick deliberately designed to beat them with. . . . . . Those in senior management positions who were most actively supportive of monitoring were, nonetheless, wary of some of the possible repercussions of examining the statistics, both inside and outside the force; and most, in any case, had other, more pressing demands on them (Fitzgerald, 1997 pp viii-ix). The Home Office researchers also found that many officers thought that ethnic monitoring was primarily about documenting the crime patterns of ethnic minorities. If they had another view it was that monitoring was imposed to accuse them of bias. The attitudinal context within which ethnic monitoring undertaken is very unsatisfactory. The reasons why ethnic monitoring was introduced are controversial. Whatever the reasons, it has highlighted rather than explained Black criminality. Police use of stop and search is currently under much more scrutiny than ever before. A simple explanation is that the police have abused their stop and search powers in the past and so they have invited this close scrutiny and bridges of trust and respect have to be built with the local community. It is interesting that after Macpherson, when new guidelines were introduced on police use of stop and search in order to dispel allegations of discriminatory use of the law, the statistics show an increase instead of a decrease in police use of stop and search against Black people. However, it is reasonable to assume that ethnic monitoring has had some effect on police use of discretion in stop and search, no matter how small. The police are aware of possible accusations of racism when they use their powers of stop and search. Thus, the use of discretion by the police in this regard is constrained by the political climate within which policing takes place. Finally, it should be noted that the collection of ethnic monitoring data is designed mainly to analyse differential outcomes of the use of stop and search and arrest powers. However, these standard data have a very limited use. They are the record of the outcome of an action not of the actions that led to the outcome. Local police managers therefore need to be able to analyse ethnic monitoring data to identify the processes that led to differential outcomes. Unless these data are used to identify the processes that have led to racial discrimination for example, effective change cannot be realised and achieved. A great deal of work has to be done by the police if the differential use of stop and search, or any other powers, is to be identified and appropriate action taken. The Home Office should prepare a standard monitoring system, used by officers with demonstrable skills in the analysis of data, and its use within all constabularies should be required and assessed by HMIC (Her Majestys Inspectorate of Constabulary). Thought needs to be given to placing the ability to analyse data as a core skill for promotion to supervisory rank. The development of analytical skills should be assessed routinely in staff appraisals. Officers need training in data analysis; in moving from a reliance on outcome data, to identifying the processes that have resulted in particular outcomes. On the issue of monitoring, the Home Secretary did appoint an implementation group to ensure that the Lawrence Inquiry action plan was realized within the police. Although the membership of this group was not finalised, it was mostly made up of members of the police representative associations and other interested parties. The implementation group did not have members who were experts in the monitoring of policy implementation. Indeed, it was dominated by the representatives of various police staff and other associations, who have proved themselves to be less competent than in the very task they are supposed to be monitoring police policy implementation. The reason for this membership is probably that the Home Secretary felt that he would have to retain the confidence and support of the police as policies developed. This is understandable, but not sufficient for the stated purpose of the implementation group. It is now critical for organisations like the Runnymede Trust to ensure that the implementation group considers adequate monitoring information and that their work is effective. The suggestion that a monitoring group should be monitored sounds cumbersome and monotonous. However it would appear to be necessary if progress is to be made ( Holdaway, 1999 para 6 ( xi to xii) ). Discussion of police use of discretion is often linked with the academic discussion of police occupational subcultures. Although most elements of police culture are universal, each agency possesses its own personal and distinctive organisational culture. Therefore it is quite difficult to find an uncomplicated definition of police culture. There are several varied definitions, some being more complex than others. According to McDonald (1997): The concept of police culture is comprised of the merging of two major components, (a) the image of impartial and professional crime fighters that the police have of themselves, and (b) a system of beliefs and behaviour not described in published manuals or agency value statements. (McDonald et al, 1997). This definition, whilst not obviously identifying a compelling positive element, does recognise more than just the negative. The public demands all professionals to be held at high standard, but for obvious reasons, policing has an even higher threshold to meet and all police officers must accept this higher standard. An integral part of the process of police acceptance of this higher standard is to understand the police culture, while retaining the resilience to both resist the negative and champion the positive. The police are the first step in the justice process, and the first rung on the ladder in the climb to dispensing justice in the hierarchy. If the police do not inspire confidence, then the whole justice system is viewed with disparagement and suspicion. If the police who are at the forefront of initiating the justice system is viewed with unease, then anything that emanates from their behaviour is similarly seen as tainted. In order for the public to have faith in the justice system and view it with respect and confidence, then it needs to be functioning properly in an unbiased manner from the start, namely the role of the police. However, the apparent unfair use of the law by the police is often linked to the culture of police officers. Authors have argued that racism, sexism, homophobic and anti-working class feelings exist within the culture of rank and file police officers and that it affects how they enforce the law or use their discretion in enforcing the law (Holdaway, 1983 and Chan, 1997). This argument has been used in explaining police use of stop and search and arrests, and the disproportionality question. Considerable research informs us about the contours and power of the rank-and-file occupational culture, (Holdaway, 1983 and Chan, 1997). In terms of minority ethnic people, it is argued that this culture mediates wider racial categorisations and stereotypes black youths as criminal. It moulds these categorisations within the context of routine police work and affects police use of discretion. The Macpherson Report (Macpherson 1999) has introduced a new dimension in the debate by asserting that the police forces as a whole are institutionally racist. In the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry, the oral evidence of the three representatives of the MPS Black Police Association was illuminating. As rightly quoted in Inspector Paul Wilsons evidence; The term institutional racism should be understood to refer to the way the institution or the organisation may systematically or repeatedly treat, or tend to treat, people differentially because of their race. So, in effect, we are not talking about the individuals within the service who may be unconscious as to the nature of what they are doing, but it is the net effect of what they do. (Stephen Lawrence Inquiry Part 2, Day 2, p. 209) A second source of institutional racism is our culture, our culture within the police service. Much has been said about our culture, the canteen culture, and the occupational culture. How and why does that impact on individuals, black individuals on the street? Well, we would say the occupational culture within the police service, given the fact that the majority of police officers are white, tends to be the white experience, the white beliefs, the white values. Given the fact that these predominantly white officers only meet members of the black community in confrontational situations, they tend to stereotype black people in general. This can lead to all sorts of negative views and assumptions about black people, so we should not underestimate the occupational culture within the police service as being a primary source of institutional racism in the way that we differentially treat black people. Interestingly I say we because there is no marked difference between black and white in the force essentially. We are all consumed by this occupational culture. Some of us may think we rise above it on some occasions, but, generally speaking, we tend to conform to the norms of this occupational culture, which we say is all powerful in shaping our views and perceptions of a particular community. (Stephen Lawrence Inquiry Part 2 Day 2, p. 211). Macpherson (1999) drew attention to these and other similar comments noting; We believe that it is essential that the views of these officers should be closely heeded and respected (Macpherson 1999, p. 25) The study in one local constabulary (South Yorkshire Police), by analysing 1998 samples, it was found that young black males between ages 15 and 25 had a 1 in 3 chance of being stopped per year, Asians a 1 in 6 chance, and whites a 1 in 10 chance. Blacks formed 0.8% of the countrys population and Asians just over 3% (Holdaway, 2003). Ethnic minorities and predominantly black youth are stopped for the suspected possession of drugs, often, small amounts of cannabis that do not lead to a court appearance. In this study it was found that black youths were more likely to be stopped for the possession of drugs, while white youths were most likely to be stopped for suspected possession of stolen goods or being equipped to steal. However, there is no available evidence to suggest that black youths use drugs more than any other ethnic group (Graham and Bowling, 1996). Although in his study, Holdaway found that the actual number of young blacks and Asians stopped and searched were small and the legal power used fairly infrequently. It cannot be assumed that its impact on the views of ethnic minorities has been proportionate. Holdaway maintains that suspicions about the disproportionate use of stop-and-search powers have fuelled a sense of discrimination among ethnic minorities. The Macpherson Inquiry 1999 into the death of Stephen Lawrence re-emphasised the need for the police services to scrutinise stop and search powers in the context of wider community relations. The Inquiry pointed to discrimination at an operational level as fuelling and leading to the publics loss of trust in the police services. The recording of self-defined ethnicity forms part of Macpherson Recommendation 61, but until 1999 several forces had to date, based ethnic monitoring on officers visual perception. Concerns have been raised about the use of self defined ethical classification as required by the Macpherson Inquiry. Police forces were themselves apprehensive about the way the public might respond and how such responses ought to be used as management information. After all, some ethnic minorities might describe themselves as British, which would make ethnic monitoring more problematic. Also the actual raising of the issue of ethnicity might make stop and search more confrontational and lead to criticisms of differential treatment which in turn would fuel the allegations of discrimination. If communities in general have no confidence in the police then they will not assist the police by providing valuable information about possible criminal activity within the communities. It is a basic fact that the police need the public in order to prevent, investigate and control crime. 2.0 Chapter II This chapter will look at the variation in the manner in which various police forces used stop and search and how the P A C E Codes of Practice of stop and search can be interpreted. Since the early nineteenth century, the police have had wide ranging local powers to stop and search individuals whom they suspect of criminal intent. This Chapter will trace the history of stop and search powers and in particular their development and utilisation under PACE. 2.1 Police Powers of Stop and Search Under The Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) Police powers to carry out stop and search dates back to the Vagrancy Act of 1824. This was the old SUS. Under sections 4 and 6 of this law, the police are empowered to stop any person found loitering in a public place on suspicion of intent to commit a cognizable offence. In addition, in London, section 66 of the Metropolitan Police Act (1839) allowed MET police officers to stop and search in London, where there was reasonable suspicion that a person was carrying anything stolen or unlawfully obtained. Interestingly, an internal record was kept not only of the searches but also of all stops under these powers. These were recorded divisionally and the figures collated centrally. Even before the advents of PACE there were concerns regarding police use of the stop and search powers. Reports produced by Willis (1983) and Smith (1983) showed that officers frequently abused the reasonable suspicion requirements attached to the powers. The reports also revealed that these powers were applied disproportionately towards members of the black community. In fact, during the 1970s, there were public concerns about police discrimination in the use of SUS and these anxieties were publicised by various organisations such as the Scrap Sus Campaign (1979) and there were calls for the stop and search powers to be regulated or even scrapped. As mentioned in chapter one, it was the indiscriminate and heavy-handed approach to the use of the SUS law in London that led to the Brixton disturbances in 1981. The mounting complaints led to SUS being a major issue reviewed by Lord Scarman. The subsequent report (The Scarman Report) recommended the replacement of SUS. SUS was repealed and then replaced with a new power of stop and search (SAS) in the Police and criminal Evidence Act (PACE) of 1984. Section 1 of PACE allows the police to stop and search any person or vehicle when the officer has reasonable grounds for suspecting that stolen or prohibited articles will be found. The police are permitted to carry out a full search of the person including anything they may be carrying or any vehicle they are in. PACE was implemented in order to clarify the circumstances in which people could be stopped and searched as well as building in safeguards for the individuals concerned. The introduction of PACE was the first time legislation that had been introduced to properly consolidate what had become a disparate range of powers in respect of the use of stop and search by British police officers. In addition the introduction of PACE could have been accelerated by the report of the Royal Commission on Criminal Procedures (1981) which had recommended improved stop and search powers. Also the Scarman Inquiry specifically said that the way in which stop and search had been carried out had contributed towards the level of tension in Brixton. In Lord Scarmans concluding comment he quoted that; The state of law is, however, a mess, as the Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure has shown The PACE powers allow for searches to be carried out on the basis of reasonable suspicion. Additionally, police officers retain the ability to carry out voluntary or non-statutory searches. As Bland, Miller and Quinton (Home Office: 2000) remarked: In practice this (PACE) was an extension of powers. The Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure recognised the need to balance this extension with safeguards to protect the public from random, arbitrary and discriminatory searches (p 6) Stop and searches carried out under PACE must be carried out in accordance with the Codes of Practice, Code A. From April 2006, following Section 61 of the Macpherson Report, the recording of stops became a requirement for all police forces. In a recent report by the National Implementation for the Recording of Stops, Michael Shiner with the assistance of Nisrine Mansour, Eleanor Stokes and Athina Vlachantoni (Home Office, 2006) suggest that the implementation of compulsory recording of all stops will improve police accountability to the public and will protect the officer from false allegations and misrepresentation from public encounters. It is hoped by the Police Federation that the recording of stops will promote better two-way communications between the police and the public. The National Implementation for the Recording of Stops commissioned by the Stop and Search Action Team undertook valuable research into police attitudes, training, leadership, data capture, community engagement, accountability and engagement (Police Federation 2006, p 3). The report was an honest but blunt appraisal of how many within the force feel about stop and search. One of the big concerns was the slur officers felt on the reputation of the force being linked with institutional racism. A common strand throughout was the issue of disproportionality and officers attitudes towards it. Quite evident was the lack of common understanding at all levels of this term except that it is feared. However, officers are keen to emphasise the value of stop and search as a policing tool needed for communitys safety and protection from crime and anti social behaviour. It is one of the best examples of intelligence led policing and the easiest way of targeting persistent offenders and infiltrating crime hot spots. However studies have shown that many stops are not recorded at all. This is only a breach of the law if the PACE powers are actually exercised and if the suspect is searched or arrested (Sanders Young, 2000; ch.2) 2.2 The Code of Practice (Code A) The most controversial area of stop and search law (or even police law generally) is the definition of reasonable suspicion. Code of practice (Code A) defined what reasonable suspicion should mean in the practical sense of the use of stop and search. In para 2.2, the Code states: Reasonable suspicion can never be supported on the basis of personal factors alone without reliable supporting intelligence or information or some specific behaviour by the person concerned. For example, a persons race, age, appearance, or the fact that the person is known to have a previous conviction, cannot be used alone or in combination with each other as the reason for searching that person. Reasonable suspicion cannot be based on generalisations or stereotypical images of certain groups or categories of people as more likely to be involved in criminal activity, (Code A para.2.2). (The latest version of the Codes of Practice came into effect on February 1, 2008, (SI 2008/167) but it does not make major changes to the existing Code A). The term disproportionate is used in the Code (Code A, par. 5.3). This is unfortunate as it has negative connotations and is synonymous with mistrust. The Codes (Code A Section 5) introduce a responsibility on supervisors to monitor and detect any disproportionality in the searches their officers conduct. The Home Office and Chief Officers readily admit they do not understand the term and yet are determined to judge police officers by it. The term proportionate would be more appropriate and implies a considered and necessary uses of stop and search powers. Furthermore, it seems that additional research should be commissioned into the many complex issues surrounding analysis of stop and search, in particular of street populations. In the aftermath of the Macpherson Report and following recent changes to PACE one would expect the service to provide additional and focussed training. It is apparent that the new safeguards introduced by PACE have failed to fulfil their goals of preventing the misuse of the concept of reasonable suspicion and the abuse of the stop and search power (McLaughlin and Muncie, 2001). Bland, Miller and Quinton ( Home Office, 2000 ) noted that : Research has pointed to the difficulty, in practice, of making a clear distinction between PACE searches and those involving consent. An early evaluation of the impact of PACE in one force highlighted confusion about the distinction at both policy and operational level. There was evidence that some officers used consent to avoid the requirements of PACE for reasonable suspicion and that public consent was often given when ignorant of the right to refuse ( p 7) The Metropolitan Police Authority commissioned a community evaluation of the implementation of Recommendation 61 of the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry in Hackney (Stop and Search, 2004). The evaluation was carried out by a black-led community organisation, the 1990 Trust. In this study, the police were told to record all stops and searches whether consensual or not, but not include those carried out under the terrorism legislation. A major concern of respondents in the study is that of not being given reasonable reasons for a stop. Existing research has shown that being given a reason for a stop is important to the public. In the Hackney study, over 86% of the respondents said that they had been told or had found out the reasons for the stop or stop and search. However, and more importantly, on further examination, over half (57%) of the respondents thought that the reason given for the stop was false. Being given an unconvincing reason for a stop was potentially as frustrating as being given no reason at all. For some respondents, it was tantamount to an insult to the intelligence of the person being stopped. The re